Research forms the foundation of human knowledge and scientific progress. Whether you're a student beginning your academic journey or a professional seeking to understand research fundamentals, grasping what research truly means and its essential characteristics is critical for conducting meaningful investigations.
This guide provides a comprehensive explanation of research, from its core definition to the eight key characteristics that distinguish rigorous scientific inquiry from casual observation.
What is Research? Definition
Research is the systematic investigation undertaken to discover new knowledge, validate existing theories, or solve specific problems using structured methodologies and empirical evidence.
At its core, research involves:
- Formulating specific questions about phenomena, behaviors, or relationships
- Collecting data through observation, experimentation, or analysis
- Analyzing information using appropriate methods and frameworks
- Drawing conclusions based on evidence rather than assumptions
- Contributing to knowledge by sharing findings with the academic or professional community
Research is not simply gathering information or reading about a topic. True research requires a methodical approach, critical thinking, and adherence to scientific principles that ensure findings are reliable, valid, and replicable.
Research Definition by Scholars
Multiple scholars have defined research from different perspectives, each emphasizing particular aspects of the research process:
Creswell (2014) defines research as "a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue."
Kothari (2004) describes research as "a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic."
Leedy and Ormrod (2015) characterize research as "a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information to increase our understanding of a phenomenon about which we are interested or concerned."
Burns and Grove (2003) define research as "a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions or solve problems."
These definitions share common elements: systematicity, methodology, discovery, and contribution to knowledge. Research is never random or haphazard but follows structured processes designed to produce trustworthy results.
8 Key Characteristics of Research
Understanding the fundamental characteristics of research helps distinguish rigorous scientific inquiry from casual investigation or opinion-based conclusions.
1. Systematic and Structured
Research follows a logical, organized process from beginning to end. Researchers plan their investigations carefully, defining clear objectives, selecting appropriate methodologies, and following established protocols.
Why this matters: Random or disorganized data collection produces unreliable results. Systematic approaches ensure that findings are based on comprehensive investigation rather than cherry-picked evidence.
Example: A study examining student performance doesn't simply observe random classrooms. Instead, researchers develop a sampling plan, standardize observation protocols, control for confounding variables, and follow predetermined data collection schedules.
2. Based on Empirical Evidence
Research relies on observable, measurable data rather than personal opinions, beliefs, or assumptions. Empirical evidence can be collected through direct observation, experimentation, surveys, or analysis of existing data.
Why this matters: Empirical foundations make research objective and verifiable. Other researchers can examine the same evidence and assess whether conclusions are justified.
Example: A researcher studying the effectiveness of a teaching method collects test scores, attendance records, and student feedback rather than relying solely on the teacher's impression that "students seem to be learning better."
3. Replicable and Verifiable
Good research provides sufficient methodological detail that other researchers can repeat the study and verify findings. Replicability is essential for establishing scientific credibility.
Why this matters: Single studies can produce anomalous results due to chance, measurement error, or unique circumstances. Replication confirms that findings are robust and generalizable.
Example: A medical researcher discovering a new treatment documents every aspect of the procedure (dosage, timing, patient selection criteria, measurement methods) so other researchers can test whether the treatment works consistently across different populations and settings.
4. Objective and Unbiased
Research aims to discover truth rather than confirm preexisting beliefs. Researchers must design studies that minimize bias and interpret results based on evidence rather than preferences.
Why this matters: Confirmation bias and subjective interpretation undermine research credibility. Objectivity ensures findings reflect reality rather than researcher expectations.
Example: A pharmaceutical company testing a new drug uses double-blind procedures where neither patients nor administrators know who receives the actual medication versus placebo, preventing unconscious bias from influencing results.
5. Logical and Analytical
Research applies reasoning and critical thinking to interpret data and draw conclusions. Logical analysis examines patterns, relationships, and implications systematically.
Why this matters: Data alone doesn't create knowledge. Logical analysis transforms raw information into meaningful insights that advance understanding.
Example: A sociologist studying poverty rates doesn't simply report that poverty increased 5% in a region. Logical analysis examines contributing factors (unemployment, education levels, policy changes), correlations with other social indicators, and potential causal mechanisms.
6. Built on Previous Knowledge
Research doesn't occur in isolation. Every study builds on existing theories, previous findings, and established methodologies. Literature reviews demonstrate understanding of the field and position new research within the broader knowledge landscape.
Why this matters: Ignoring previous research wastes resources by duplicating existing work or failing to apply established insights. Building on prior knowledge accelerates scientific progress.
Example: A researcher investigating climate change effects on agriculture begins by reviewing decades of climate science, agricultural research, and ecosystem studies to identify gaps in knowledge and refine research questions.
7. Generalizable When Appropriate
While not all research aims for broad generalization, studies should clearly articulate the scope of their findings and the populations or contexts to which results apply.
Why this matters: Overgeneralizing from limited data leads to false conclusions. Appropriate generalization helps practitioners and policymakers apply research findings correctly.
Example: A study of online learning effectiveness conducted with university students in the United States should not claim findings apply universally to all ages, educational levels, and cultural contexts without additional evidence.
8. Cyclical and Progressive
Research generates new questions even as it answers existing ones. Each completed study often reveals knowledge gaps, suggests new hypotheses, or opens unexplored areas for investigation.
Why this matters: Scientific knowledge grows through iterative cycles of investigation. Today's answers become tomorrow's questions, driving continuous advancement.
Example: Research establishing that exercise improves mental health prompts new questions: Which types of exercise are most effective? What duration and intensity are optimal? Do effects vary by age, fitness level, or mental health condition?
Types of Research
Research can be categorized in multiple ways based on purpose, methodology, and approach:
By Purpose
Basic Research: Seeks to expand fundamental knowledge without immediate practical application. Focuses on understanding theories, principles, and natural laws.
Applied Research: Addresses specific practical problems or develops solutions for real-world challenges.
Action Research: Conducted by practitioners to improve their own practices, often in educational or organizational settings.
By Methodology
Quantitative Research: Collects numerical data and uses statistical analysis to test hypotheses and identify patterns.
Qualitative Research: Explores meanings, experiences, and perspectives through interviews, observations, and textual analysis.
Mixed Methods Research: Combines quantitative and qualitative approaches to provide comprehensive understanding.
By Time Horizon
Cross-Sectional Research: Collects data at a single point in time to examine current conditions or relationships.
Longitudinal Research: Collects data at multiple time points to track changes and identify trends over time.
Characteristics of Good Research vs. Poor Research
Understanding what distinguishes quality research from inadequate investigations helps researchers design better studies and consumers evaluate research credibility.
Good Research Characteristics:
- Original contribution: Adds new knowledge or perspectives to the field
- Rigorous methodology: Uses appropriate, well-executed research methods
- Transparent process: Documents methods, limitations, and decision-making clearly
- Ethical conduct: Respects participants, maintains integrity, and follows ethical guidelines
- Meaningful conclusions: Draws warranted conclusions supported by evidence
- Peer review: Submits to expert evaluation and critique
- Reproducible: Provides sufficient detail for replication
- Relevant: Addresses significant questions with practical or theoretical importance
Poor Research Characteristics:
- Lacks originality: Duplicates existing work without adding value
- Methodological flaws: Uses inappropriate methods, inadequate samples, or flawed measurements
- Biased interpretation: Cherry-picks data or interprets results to confirm preexisting beliefs
- Incomplete documentation: Omits critical methodological details
- Ethical violations: Harms participants, fabricates data, or plagiarizes
- Unsupported conclusions: Makes claims that exceed evidence
- Not replicable: Lacks sufficient detail for verification
- Trivial focus: Addresses unimportant questions with no broader significance
The Research Process: Essential Steps
While specific steps vary by discipline and methodology, most research follows this general process (similar to the scientific method):
1. Identify Research Problem
Define a clear, focused question or problem that merits investigation. Good research questions are specific, answerable, and significant.
2. Review Existing Literature
Examine previous research to understand what is already known, identify gaps, and refine your research approach.
3. Formulate Hypotheses or Objectives
Develop testable hypotheses (in quantitative research) or clear objectives (in qualitative research) that guide investigation.
4. Design Research Methodology
Select appropriate methods for data collection and analysis. Choose study design, sampling strategy, measurement tools, and analytical techniques.
5. Collect Data
Gather information systematically according to your research design. Maintain consistency, accuracy, and ethical standards throughout data collection.
6. Analyze Data
Apply appropriate analytical methods to identify patterns, test hypotheses, or develop theories. Use statistical techniques for quantitative data or thematic analysis for qualitative data.
7. Interpret Results
Examine what findings mean in relation to your research question and existing knowledge. Consider alternative explanations and acknowledge limitations.
8. Communicate Findings
Share results through publications, presentations, or reports. Contribute to the broader knowledge base and enable others to build on your work.
Why Research Matters
Research drives progress across all domains of human endeavor:
Scientific advancement: Research expands understanding of natural phenomena, leading to technological innovation and improved quality of life.
Evidence-based practice: Professionals in medicine, education, business, and public policy rely on research to make informed decisions rather than acting on intuition or tradition.
Social improvement: Research identifies social problems, evaluates interventions, and guides policy development to address societal challenges.
Economic development: Research and development create new products, services, and industries that fuel economic growth.
Critical thinking: Engaging with research develops analytical skills, skepticism toward unsupported claims, and appreciation for evidence-based reasoning.
Common Research Challenges
Researchers frequently encounter obstacles that must be addressed for successful investigations:
Limited resources: Time, funding, and access constraints often require compromises in study scope or methodology.
Sampling difficulties: Recruiting representative samples or accessing hard-to-reach populations challenges generalizability.
Measurement challenges: Operationalizing abstract concepts into measurable variables requires careful thought and validation.
Ethical considerations: Balancing research objectives with participant welfare, privacy, and informed consent demands constant attention.
Bias and objectivity: Maintaining objectivity despite personal beliefs, funding pressures, or career incentives requires vigilance and transparency.
Complexity: Social, biological, and physical phenomena involve numerous interacting factors that complicate causal inference.
Wrapping Up
Research is the systematic investigation that drives human knowledge forward. Through structured methodologies, empirical evidence, and rigorous analysis, research transforms questions into answers and observations into understanding.
The eight key characteristics of research (systematic structure, empirical foundation, replicability, objectivity, logical analysis, connection to previous knowledge, appropriate generalization, and cyclical progression) distinguish scientific inquiry from casual observation or opinion-based conclusions. Understanding these characteristics helps researchers design better studies and enables everyone to evaluate the credibility of research claims they encounter.
Whether conducting basic research to expand fundamental knowledge or applied research to solve practical problems, adhering to these core characteristics ensures that investigations contribute meaningfully to our collective understanding. As you engage with research, either as a creator or consumer, remember that quality research is systematic, evidence-based, and transparent in its methods and conclusions.
References
Burns, N., & Grove, S. K. (2003). Understanding Nursing Research (3rd ed.). Saunders.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.
Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques (2nd ed.). New Age International.
Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2015). Practical Research: Planning and Design (11th ed.). Pearson.